The Secret Life of Walter Mitty

(The Secret Life of Walter Mitty taken from Timeless Short Stories for ISC class XI)

Q.Describe one of Walter Mitty's secret life and what triggered them.

A.Walter Mitty had several secret lives.These were:
1.The life of the Commander of a Navy Hydroplane.
2.A skilled surgeon who could not only perform complicated surgeries but also one who could repair medical equipment.
3.A boastful criminal (boastful of his shooting skills) on trial for killing Gregory Fitzhurst.
4.The pilot of a British bomber who undertakes a dangerous mission to destroy the enemy's ammunition dump.
5.As a tough prisoner who is not shaken even when being executed by a firing squad.

Walter Mitty's mundane life used to trigger off episodes of day-dreaming.Once, while driving his wife to the hairdresser - he lapsed into a day dream. He dreamt of himself as the commander of a eight-engine Navy Hydroplane.(A Hydroplane is a high speed craft which skims over the surface of water.)

In this episode of day-dreaming - Walter Mitty is attired as the commander of the Navy Hydroplane caught in a storm. He is portrayed as a tough no-nonsense commander completely in command of the situation.The entire crew of the hydroplane is afraid of the craft not being able to navigate through the storm.However,Walter Mitty's technical skills and determination sees the hydroplane successfully navigate through the storm.As the commander, he commands his crew increase speed and the power to the engines to get through the storm.In this episode,Walter Mitty is not only seen to be a good leader of men but also a skilled navigator and an expert technician.

This episode was triggered off by Walter Mitty's driving - while taking his wife to the hairdresser.

Click here for a useful reference

Disarming Crew,Unarmed Door

Frequent fliers (or even infrequent fliers) will recall the monotonous announcement from the flight deck of commercial flights " cabin crew to arm all doors, cross check and report".This is the first small step of the multi-step departure procedure.Passengers heave a sigh of relief at each of these steps. Even after arming the door the aircraft, a departure could take a long while - congestion in Indian skies and runways being what it is.

However, with Shri Sharad Pawar being on board Jet Airways flight 9W 362,ATC may have given early clearance to this aircraft.The crew must have closed the door with alacrity to enable early takeoff. However,either the door was not armed (closed) properly or door was closed but not aligned correctly.In addition,the crossing-checking was perhaps not done or not done in the prescribed manner.

At about 5,000 feet the crew, fortunately, noticed that the door was not closed properly and the plane,thankfully, made a safe emergency landing.

So, what happens if the cabin door opens mid-flight? Apparently, this is not possible:
"In practice, however, it's due to the large pressure difference between the pressurized fuselage and the outside air, that the doors would be un-openable. As has already been stated, emergency doors/windows almost always open inwards, and main "cabin" doors need to initially open inwards before they can be rotated outward. The large pressure differential present, however, creates an outward acting force on the doors of such magnitude that even a very strong person, or even several would be incapable of pulling inward sufficiently to overcome it and allow the door to open, even if they rotate the door handle.


This aircaft plunged 20,000 feet on account of this hole,caused midflight, in fuselage
In other words, the doors are not only larger than the door opening, but they are also forced and sealed shut by an outward pressure caused by the pressurized cabin."
(Read the full article)

However, despite all safety measures, the door of an aircraft can still fall of mid-flight.Just click here to read when this happened to this American Eagle commuter plane (ATR-72)in 1995.

So, even if you are the type who does not follow cabin crew instructions,just ensure that have have your seat belt on,always.Just in case..


Emergency landing by Jet Airways.Door not closed correctly.

Basic Problems of an Economy

(Questions from ISC Economics published by Frank Bros for class XI.Chapter III)

1.Explain the economic problem of an economy.
The economic problems of an economy are :
a)Human wants are unlimited
b)There are limited resources to satisfy these wants.
c)Unlimited wants have to be fulfilled with limited resources.
Therefore the economy faces the problem of satisfying unlimited wants with limited resources by arranging its wants in the order of priority in which it has to be fulfilled.From these arises the question of what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce.
a)What to produce: Since resources are limited an economy has to produce those commodities which are high on its list of priorities. Only if this is done will there be a greater satisfaction of wants. If resources were unlimited the question of what to produce would not arise at all. If the economy makes a mistake of producing the wrong commodities then there will be wastage as the commodities produced will not be able to satisfy wants and will have to be thrown away. What to produce also depends on the pattern of consumption. For example in North India people consume more wheat while in South India people consume more rice.
b)How to produce: Not only the economy has decide on what to produce but has to decide on how much of each commodity it has to produce. If the wrong quantities are produced then there will be wastage of scarce resources. Once it has been decided how much to produce then the question of how to produce also has to be answered. If the level of technical knowledge is high then an automated method of production can be used else manual production methods have to be used. The quantity of production will depend on the method of production. How to produce will also depend on the resources available. For example if labour is easily available then a manual method may be used else a mechanized method has to be used.
c)For whom to produce: Every part of the economy has different wants and different level of resources. So the economic question is what has to be produced for whom. This is a problem of distribution. For example if the amount of wheat that can be produced is limited, then should it be distributed through Fair Price Shops ( Ration Shops) or sold for the more affluent people through regular shops.

2.Explain the factors that lead to economic problems.
The factors that lead to economic problems are:
a)Human wants are unlimited
b)The resources available to satisfy these are limited.Not only are human wants unlimited but wants keep increasing over a period of time.Further, as soon as on want is satisfied other wants crop-up. The main factor that lead to economic problems, therefore, is how to satisfy unlimited wants with limited means.

3.What do you understand by and economic problem? Can you think of an economy without and economic problem? Explain your answer.
An economic problem is a problem of too many wants and too few resources available to satisfy these wants. An economic problem can also be explained as the problem of what to produce, where to produce, how to produce and how much to produce. There is no economy without economic problems.

However, different economies have different economic problems. For example some part of Africa’s main economic problem is the scarcity of food and the non-availability of resources to produce the required food. The United States of America faces the problem of very high consumption of consumer goods. It faces the economic problems of people borrowing to consume. This leads to default in the repayment of loans. Default in repayment of loans leads to the economic problem of bankruptcy of financial institutions. A country like Singapore faces the economic problem of a shortage of skilled manpower. Every country faces its own economic problem.

There cannot be any economy without any economic problems. This is because no country has unlimited supply of resources. In order to meet their needs, each country has to depend on the resources of other countries. Even the USA has to depend on oil imported from the Middle East. Economic problems cannot be solved but restricted through good economic policies.

4.“Scarcity is the root of the problem of choice which every economy has to face? Discuss.
Scarcity is the root problem of choice which every economy has to face. This is because every economy has unlimited wants but only limited resources to satisfy these wants. All wants cannot be satisfied only because of limited resources.
Therefore, in order to satisfy wants, wants have to prioritized into important and less important want. Limited resources are then used to satisfy the more important wants first. If resources were not limited then all wants could have been satisfied together.Therefore, scarcity is the root problem of choice which every economy has to face.

5.Explain the central problems of an economy. Do all economies have similar central problems.
The central problems of an economy are as under :
-What and how much to produce: Every economy has to decide what to produce and how much to produce. What to produce has to be decided because limited resources cannot produce everything that is required. Only those goods which can satisfy the wants of the people better must be produced. Every economy has to decided how much of its resources must be used to produce guns and how much of it must be use to produce food. Not only that, each economy has to decide how much of each good is to be produced. If it is produced too little then there will be unfulfilled wants. If too much is produced then there will be wastage.
- How to produce : The economy must also decide how to produce. It has to decide on the choice of the technique of production. Each economy has to use a combination of resources like land, labour and capital to produce in a most efficient manner. The combination of resources used also depends upon the level of technical knowledge available in the county. If the level of technical knowledge is high then more capital and less labour may be used for production. If manpower is cheap then more manpower may be used.
-For whom to produce: This is a problem of distribution. The sum total of goods produced in the country is distributed among its population. Goods are produced for those who can afford to buy them.
-Fuller utilization of resources: Since resources are scarce, the available resources have to be fully utilized. Not utilizing resources is a waste of scarce resources. For example unemployment is a waste of scarce labour resources. Unemployment of scarce resources means the capacity to produce scarce goods goes waste and the economy does not get the benefit of the goods and services that could have been produced with these resources.
-Efficiency in utilization of resources: Each economy has to use resources efficiently. Efficient use of resources will avoid the wastage of scarce resources. Efficiency in the use of resources is defined as “when the economy cannot produce more of one commodity without producing less of another.”
-Economic Growth : Every economy faces the problem of economic growth. Every economy has to increase its ability to produce more goods and services with the available resources. If there is higher economic growth then the standard of living of people will improve. Economic growth is measured in term of Per Capita Income.

These central problems of an economy are common to all economies. Only the
method of resolving these varies from economy to economy. In a capitalist
economy these are resolved with the help of the “price mechanism”. In a socialist
economy these are resolved by the Central Planning Authority.

6.What is a production possibility curve? Upon what assumptions is it based? Explain its characteristics (shape).
A Production Possibility Curve is a diagram, which slopes downwards towards the right which explains nature of economic problem which arises due to the scarce resources which has alternate uses. It states schematically how much of two different commodities the society can produce with available resources. The assumptions of the Production Possibility Curve are:
- The amount of resources a society has is fixed.
- There is no change in technology.
- All productive resources are fully employed.
- Resources are not equally efficient in the production of all goods.
The characteristics (shape ) is :
-It slopes downwards towards the right : This indicates that that economy may give up the production of some items in order to produce some others. This is assuming that only limited resources are available and are utilized in the best manner.
- It is concave from the origin: The concave nature of the curve indicates the increasing opportunity cost. The opportunity cost of one commodity is the units of the other commodity which cannot be produced in order to produce one unit of a commodity. The opportunity cost keeps increasing since available resources cannot produces all goods with the same efficiency.

7.Illustrate the central problems of an economy with the help of production possibility curve.




The central problem of an economy are:
-what to produce.
-how much to produce
-for whom to produce
-economic growth.
The central problem can be explained with the help of the Production Possibility curve given above. According to the curve above, the economy, with the help of the available resources can either produce 12 units of food or 12 units of computers. According to the production possibility curve the same resources can be used to produce 11 units of food and a 5 units of computers. The other option is to produce 10 units of food and 6 units of computers. The opportunity cost of producing one additional unit of a computer is 1 unit of food. However, the opportunity cost of producing 10 instead of 9 computers (1 additional computer) is 3 units of food.

Thus, the Production Possibility curve indicates at what level the production is the most efficient leading to a better utilization of scarce resources.


8.Draw and define a production possibility curve and show the following situations on the diagram.
i.Full employment of resources.
ii.Under utilization of resources
iii.Growth of resources.



The Production Possibility Curve (PPC) represents the point at which an economy is most efficiently producing its goods and services and, therefore, allocating its resources in the best way possible. If the economy is not producing the quantities indicated by the PPC, then resources are being managed inefficiently and the production of society will dwindle. The Production Possibility Curve shows there are limits to production, so an economy, to achieve efficiency, must decide what combination of goods and services can be produced.


Let's turn to the chart above. Imagine an economy that can produce only wine and cotton. According to the PPF, points A, B and C - all appearing on the curve - represent the most efficient use of resources by the economy. Point X represents an inefficient use of resources, while point Y represents the goals that the economy cannot attain with its present levels of resources.

The outline of the curve (marked Production Possibility Frontier) represents full utilization of resources. Point Y in the chart (below) represents growth in the economy. More goods and services are being produced with a better utilization of resources.
However, point X in the chart above represents a point where resources are not being utilized properly.



9.What is meant by economic growth? Differentiate between economic grow and
economic development.

Economic growth is defined as the increase in the per capital income of the country. The total production of good and services in an economy is termed as Gross National Product (GNP). However, increase in the GNP does not represent economic growth. This is because if there is GDP increase along with an increase in population then there is no real growth. Therefore, economic growth is defined as the increase in the per capita income. An increase in the per capital income leads to greater availability of goods and services in the hands of the people. Further, economic growth is in expressed in real terms. That is, per capita income has to be adjusted for inflation and must be for a sustained or prolonged period of time.

Economic development is different from economic growth. There may be economic growth by way of high increase in the per capita income. However, this per capita income may be concentrated in the hands of a few people. If this happens then there is no improvement in the standard of living of the people. Further the increase in the per capital income may be offset by inflation. Therefore, economic development is a long term growth of per capital income accompanied by reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment. It includes improvement in material welfare, eradication of poverty, removal of illiteracy, disease and low lifespan.


10.Explain the concept of economic development.
Economic development is different from economic growth. There may be economic growth by way of high increase in the per capita income. However, this per capita income may be concentrated in the hands of a few people. If this happens then there is no improvement in the standard of living of the people. Further the increase in the per capital income may be offset by inflation. Therefore, economic development is a long term growth of per capital income accompanied by reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment. It includes improvement in material welfare, eradication of poverty, removal of illiteracy, disease and low lifespan.

-Economic development is growth plus improvement in the standard of living.
-Economic growth refers to output. However, economic development refers to the composition of output an allocation of resources to the different sectors of the economy.
-Economic growth refers to the rise in income. However, economic development also refers to reduction in poverty, inequality, income and unemployment.
-Economic growth refers only to the indicator of income. Economic development also refers to non-economic indicators like literacy, health services etc.
-Economic growth is relatively easy to realize. However, economic development involves a lot of changes in society. It involves changes in social structure, attitudes, institutions as well as acceleration of economic growth, eradication of poverty etc.
-Economic growth does not require as much government intervention as economic development. Economic development involves uplifting the living standards of the people of the country and therefore requires government intervention.

11.Explain briefly the different stages of economic growth.
The different stages of economic growth are:
a)Traditional Society: A traditional society is a stage of economic growth where there is absence of modern science and technology. There is low output and productivity and primitive methods of production. There is very low savings and investments. Agriculture is the most important activity of the society.
b)Pre-take off stage: In this stage some conditions for growth are created. People aspire for a higher standard of living. Values, social attitude and expectations of the people change. Enterprising people come forward to take risks. Investment in transportation and communications increases. There is an expansion of internal and external trade.
c)Take-off stage : Here the process of economic growth becomes self sustained. Growth takes place without much government interaction. There is a political revolution and a significant increase in savings and investment.
d)Drive to maturity : The economy becomes mature with a high level of per capita output. There is sustained economic growth over decades. Modern technology is applied to all sectors. Investment is over 10% of national income.
e)Age of mass consumption : This is the final stage of economic growth. The per capita income is high with a high standard of living. There is extensive use of consumer goods and use of house-hold gadgets. The attention of society moves from problems of production to problems of consumption.

Basic Economic Concepts

(Question taken from ISC Economics published by Frank Bros for class XI.Suitable for students of ISC Schools.Chapter II,Basic Economic Concepts)


1.What do you understand by human wants? Explain the main features of human wants?
The word ‘want’ normally means a wish or a desire. However, the economic definition of a ‘want’ is “an effective desire for a particular object or service, which can be satisfied by making an effort to acquire it. For example, making an effort to acquire a car is a ‘want’. Desiring a car without making an effort to acquire it is not a ‘want’. Human wants can be divided as under :

Necessities: Necessities are those wants which are required for the very existence of human living and to maintain normal efficiency. Necessities are also called primary or basic wants. These include food, clothing and shelter.
Comforts: Comforts are those wants which makes our lives more comfortable. For example, a refrigerator or a television set are classified under comforts.
Luxuries: Luxuries are those wants which are required to show off wealth and power. The benefits of these luxuries may not be worth the price paid for it but it is required as a status symbol.

The main features of human wants are:
1.Unlimited: Human wants are unlimited. As soon as one want is satisfied another want comes up. Wants are also multiple. There are many wants at the same time. Wants begin with birth and ends only on death of the human.
2.Complementary: When two good are required together wants are called complementary. For example car and petrol are complementary wants. Pen and ink are complementary wants.
3.Substitutability: One want can be satisfied by two o more goods. For example thirst can be quenched with water or a Pepsi.
4.Competitive: Wants are competitive. Mans limited income can be used to purchase either one commodity or the other. If a person has Rs.500/- he can use it to watch a cricket match or go to a movie.
5.Wants multiply: Wants multiply over time. With improvement of technology, new goods are produced leading to new wants.
6.Wants recur: Human wants are satisfied only temporarily. They appear again and again. For example if food is consumed in the morning it is required again in the evening.
7.A single want can be satisfied: All wants cannot be satisfied. However, one want or a few wants can be satisfied. This is because no one has the resources to satisfy all wants.
8.Some wants can be postponed: Not all wants can be postponed. The want for a television set can be postponed. However, the want for food cannot be postponed.
9.Wants differ in urgency: Some wants are more urgent than others. The want to pay school fees may be more urgent than the want to buy a movie ticket.
10.Wants ahead of availability: Human wants are always ahead of availability of good and service.

2.Define utility and explain its basic features.
Utility is the want satisfying power of a commodity. It is the ability or capacity of a commodity to satisfy human wants. Utility is the amount of satisfaction derived from a good or service at a particular time. For example, food has the power or utility to satisfy hunger. Total utility is the satisfaction derived from consuming a given quantity of a commodity. Marginal utility is the additional utility or satisfaction from consuming an additional unit of that commodity.

The characteristics of utility are :

1.Subjective: Utility is subjective. It cannot be observed. It depends on the individuals subjective estimate. For example the utility of an apple for one individual will be different from that of another individual. For a person who does not like apples the apple has low utility even when the person is hungry. For a person who likes apples, the apple has high utility.
2.Not Measurable: The utility of a commodity cannot be measured as it is subjective. The utility of an apple for one person is different from that of another person and there is no device to measure this utility.
3.Relative: Utility is relative to a persons need. The utility of bread to a hungry person is higher than the utility of bread to another person who is not hungry. Utility also varies from time to time and place to place.
4.Different from usefulness: Utility is different from usefulness. A commodity may have utility even if it is not useful. Smoking is not useful as it harms the health. But, to a smoker it has utility since it satisfies his craving for nicotine.
5.No moral or legal connotation : Utility has not moral or legal angle. A commodity may be illegal or immoral but it may still have utility. For example for a vegetarian eating meat is immoral but to another person who is a non-vegetarian eating meat satisfies a want and therefore has utility. Possession of a gun may be illegal but to a dacoit the possession of a gun has utility.
6.It is abstract: Utility is abstract as it cannot be seen or touched.

3.Explain the concepts of production and investment.

Production: Production is the act of making goods and services. It involves converting raw material into finished goods. However, this is an incomplete definition since this does not include services. The revised definition of production is, therefore, “the process of creating utility”. This means that the process of creating goods and services is called production. It includes tangible goods and services like that of Banking, services of Doctors, Lawyers etc. Thus production is the process of adding utility to any object or service. Utility can be created in the following ways:

Form Utility: Form utility is created when the form of the goods is changed from raw material to finished goods. Wood has utility those people who want a table. Therefore making a table from wood increases the utility of wood.

Place Utility: Goods have utility if it is moved from one place to another. When goods are moved from the warehouse to the retail shop place utility is created.

Time utility: Time utility is created when goods are made available when goods are required. For example winter clothing has time utility if they are stored till winter when they are required.

Service Utility: Service utility results from the provision of personal services of the individuals like doctors, teachers, engineers etc.

Thus, production is the process of adding utility tot the object through form, place utility, time utility and service utility.

Investment: Investment is defined as the act of using production resources for the production of investment goods. That is goods are used for producing other goods which can be used for production. Using resources to produce goods like machinery, tools, buildings is called investment. Another name for investment is capital formation. The major components of investment goods are :
a.Capital Goods: The production of new capital goods such as plants, machinery is part of investment. Capital goods are called producers’ fixed investments.
b.Business Construction: The construction of office and factories is also called investment.
c.Investment in residential housing: A residential house gives utility over a long period of time therefore it is classified as investment and not consumption. Investment in housing is different from other forms of investment as it is sold to households while other capital goods are sold to firms.
d.Investment in stocks: Stocks of raw materials, semi-finished goods and finished goods is called investment in stocks. A net addition to stocks is called investment because it represents good produced but not used for current consumption.
The total of all investment goods – capital goods, business construction, residential housing,stocks is called gross investment. Physical wear and tear is called depreciation. Investment to replace what is worn-out is called replacement investment. Investment in the stock market is financial investment. Investment in capital goods is real investment.

4.Discuss the characteristic features of factors of production.

The factors of production are :

Land : This includes all types of land including forest land.
Labour : This includes all human effort, whether mental or physical.
Capital : Capital refers to all man made items like machinery, tools buildings.
Entrepreneurship: This refers to the risk taking ability of a human being to use land, labour, capital to produce goods or services in order to make a profit.

The main features of the factors of production are :

a)All four: Production is the outcome of the use all the four factors of production that is land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship in order to produce goods or services.
b)No fixed ratio: While all four factors of production have to be used in the process of production, these are not used in a fixed ratio. Different activities need a different ratio of all four factors of production.
c)Services: The services of the factor of production, for example the skill of the human rather than the human himself, is important for production.
d)Physical existence: All factors of production has a physical existence. You can touch and feel all factors like land, labour, machinery etc.
e)Derived demand : The demand for factors of production is derived demand. The demand for factors of production increases or decreases when the demand from consumers for goods or services increases of decreases.
f)Mobility: Not all factors of production are mobile. Mobility refers to the ability of the factor to move from place to place. Labour and entrepreneurs are mobile but land is not mobile. Capital is less mobile than labour.

5.Distinguish between value and price.

All goods and services have a price. The price of a commodity is the amount of money that has to given to get a commodity. Goods which are scarce have a higher price. Good which are abundantly available have a lower price. The price of a commodity is determined through the market forces of demand and supply. Equilibrium price is the price at which the quantity demanded equals quantity supplied.

Value is different from price. The value of a commodity is the valuation of a commodity, by a household or individual, for its consumption. For example water has a low price but has a very high value for a thirsty individual. There are two kind of value :

Value-in-use : This is the utility derived from the consumption of a commodity. For example water has a high value-in-use or consumption value.

Value-in exchange : It is the rate at which a particular good or service can be exchanged with another or exchanged with money. It has no necessary connection with value-in-use. For example water has low value-in-exchange but a high value-in-use. Diamonds, for example, have a high value-in-exchange (price) but a low value-in-use (utility)

6. What is meant by a market? Distinguish between goods markets and factor markets.
Market is a system or facility with enables buyers and seller to interact and communicate with each other in order to strike a deal. A market may not be a physical place but is a system or mechanism by which buyers and sellers are brought together.

The two features of a market are :

a)A market need not be located at a particular place. The geographical area of the market may be large or small depending on how scattered the buyers are.
b)Buyers and Sellers need not have personal contact with each other. They need to have a system of communication with each other in order to make a transaction.

Goods and Factor markets are different. The differences are :

a)Goods Market : Goods Market are those market where goods and services are bought and sold. The sellers in this market are usually firms and the buyers are individuals, households or government. The cloth market is an example of a goods market.
b)Factor Market : A factor market is a market where factors of production are bought or sold. For example the labour market, capital market etc. In this case buyers are entrepreneur and sellers are the owners of the factor of production. The banking system is an example of a factor market.

7.Define money. What are its components in a modern economy?
Money is anything that is generally accepted as a means of exchange and at the same time acts as a measure and store of value. Money was devised on account of the inefficiencies of the barter system.
The components of money are :
a)Currency : This consists of currency notes and coins. and are issued by the Central Bank of the country. In India the Rupee is the currency of the government. The symbol for this is M1.
b)Deposit Money : Deposits held in bank against which cheques can be issued is called deposit money or bank money. The symbol for this is M3.

8.Explain the concepts of income, consumption and saving.

Income : Income may be defined as the flow of money or the flow of goods and services accruing to an individual or all the people in the economy over a specified time.

Personal income: Personal income earned by an individual is expressed in terms of money. For example the income of an individual may be Rs.10,000/- per month. People earn a personal income by selling goods or services they have produced.

National income: National income is the value of all the goods and services produced in the country by all the residents in the country in a given period which is usually one year. The three important points of national income are :
a)It is the aggregate value of all goods and services produced in the country. However, since we cannot add different goods like machinery and buildings, the value of the goods produced is expressed in terms of money which is the national income.
b)For calculating the national income only the value of the final goods are considered. The value of intermediate goods is not considered for calculating the national income since this value is already included in the value of the final goods. For example the value of bread produced is considered in national income but the value of flour is not considered as the value of flour is already included in the value of bread.
c)National income is the flow of goods and services. This flow is calculated over a period of one year.

Per Capital income is a part of the definition of National Income. The Per Capita income is the National Income divided by the population of the country. The higher the Per Capita income the higher is the state of development of the nation.

Consumption:
Consumption is the satisfaction of human wants through the use of goods and services. Wants lead to consumption of goods and services. Consumption of goods and services leads to the satisfaction of wants. The factors affecting consumption are :

a)Income & Propensity to consume : The main factor affecting consumption is income. The higher the income the greater the consumption. Also, the propensity to consume also determines consumption. Propensity to consume is the amount of income that the consumer spends. If the consumer spends Rs.800 from his income of Rs.1000 then the propensity to consume is Rs.800/Rs.1,000 ie 0.8%
b)Future income : Current consumption is not only decided by the current income but also by expectations of future earnings. If income is expected to be lower during old age then people spend less when they are young in order to save for old age.
c)Wealth : Consumption may be high even when income is low. This happens when a person has high accumulated wealth.

Savings:
Savings is defined as income minus consumption. Whatever is left in hand after spending is called savings. The difference between saving and savings is that saving is the amount not spend from current income. Savings is the amount not spent from current and past incomes.


9. What do you understand by National Income?
National income: National income is the value of all the goods and services produced in the country by all the residents in the country in a given period which is usually one year. The three important points of national income are :
a)It is the aggregate value of all goods and services produced in the country. However, since we cannot add different goods like machinery and buildings, the value of the goods produced is expressed in terms of money which is the national income.
b)For calculating the national income only the value of the final goods are considered. The value of intermediate goods is not considered for calculating the national income since this value is already included in the value of the final goods. For example the value of bread produced is considered in national income but the value of flour is not considered as the value of flour is already included in the value of bread.
c)National income is the flow of goods and services. This flow is calculated over a period of one year.

Per Capital income is a part of the definition of National Income. The Per Capita income is the National Income divided by the population of the country. The higher the Per Capita income the higher is the state of development of the nation.

10. Define National wealth and state its various components.
National wealth is the stock of all assets, at any point of time, that contributes to the production of goods and services. Assets are of two types:

Reproducible Assets : These are man-made assets and consists of machinery, buildings which contributes to the production of goods.
Non Durable goods:These consists of inventories of good which can be used to satisfy peoples wants like stock of television, refrigerators.

Non Reproducible Assets : These consists of natural resources like land, mineral wealth etc. These assets cannot be created by man.

For anything to be regarded as wealth, it must have the following features:

a)Utility : That is, it must satisfy wants when it is consumed.
b)Scarcity : It must have limited supply.
c)Transferability : The ownership must be transferable from one person to another.
d)Exchange Value : It must have exchange value. That is, one must be able to exchange it with money or must be able to barter it with other items.

11. Distinguish between economic welfare and non-economic welfare.

Welfare is a sense of satisfaction ,happiness and well-being among people.Welfare can be affected by factors like income, consumption,environment, freedom etc. Since some factors affecting welfare like income and consumption can be measure by money these factors are classified as economic welfare. Welfare factors like environment which are not affected by money are classified as non-economic welfare factors.

Total welfare of the people of a country is the sum total of economic and non-economic welfare. The welfare of the society as a whole is called social welfare.

12. Explain basic economic entities in an economy.
Economic entities in an economy are classified into three categories, that is, Households, Firms and Government.

Households : A household is defined as person or group of people who live together and take decisions about the types of commodities to be purchased for satisfying their wants. A household may also be owners of factors of production like land, labour and capital and take decision about the sales of these factors of capital. Thus households take part in economic activities both as consumers and sellers of factors of production.

Firms : A firm is an entity which employs factors to produce commodities to sell to other people. Firms act as producers of commodities as well as consumers of factors of production.

Government : Government is a group of organization which possesses legal and political power and exercises some control over other sectors of the economy. These include the Central Government, State Government and Local Governments. It earn an income from taxes and spends money on administration, law and order and on building infrastructure.

Definition,Nature and Scope of Economics

(Question taken from ISC Economics published by Frank Bros for class XI.Suitable for students of ISC Schools.Chapter I,Definition,Nature and Scope of Economics )

1.Explain the nature and scope of Economics.

Introduction
Economics is a social science concerned with answering economic questions. It seeks to explain, systematically, a large variety of questions pertaining to the economic behavior of individuals and groups.

Each leading economists has defined economics a little differently.

Adam Smith : His definition of economics is wealth oriented. His concept of Economic Man said that man tries to increase his economic gain for this self interest.

Alfred Marshall : His definition of economics not only included wealth but also the ordinary business of life. That is he said economics is not only about earning wealth but also about spending money.

Lionel Robbins : His definition of economics says that human want are unlimited but resources to satisfy those want are limited. So, Robbins’s definition says economics studies the relationship between ends and scarce means.

Paul Samuelson : Samuelson’s definition of economic is somewhat similar to that of Robbins. While Robbins was concerned with the relationship between want and means for the short term, Samuelson was concerned with this relationship in the long run.

Nature and Scope of Economics

Nature of Economics :

Is the nature of economics like an art or a science?

Economics as a science: Economics is considered to be as social science. A social science is a science which studies human activities. A subject is called a science if:
a)There is a systematic body of knowledge which traces the relationship between cause and effect.
b)There is observation of facts, systematic collection, classification and analysis of facts.
c)There is a making of generalization on the basis of relevant facts and formulating laws and theories.
d)These theories are subjected to real world observations.

Subjects like Chemistry and Physics are called science because it meets all the above characteristics. Economics can also be called a science since it meets these features of a science. Like in other sciences, economic theories are deduced by logical reasoning. For example, like in Newton’s Law of Gravitation in Physics, in economics, the Law of Demand states that, other things remaining the same, there will be an increase in demand if there is a reduction in the price.

Like in other sciences, in economics too there is observation of facts and an analysis of the same. Like other sciences in economics too theories are subjected to real world observations. The truth of economic theories can be challenged when these are subjected to real world observations. Since the methods of economics are scientific it is called a science. Economics is a Positive Science and a Normative Science. This is because it is concerned not only with the cause and effect relationship but also with the cause and desired effect relationship.

However, like in other sciences, laboratory experiments are not possible. Also the laws of economics are not universally applicable like other sciences. Therefore while economics is a science, it is not an exact science.

Economic as an Art : Economics is also an art. It is an art. It is an art because it is not only theoretical but also practical. Science is about knowledge. Art is the application of knowledge.
Applying this definition of art we can say economics is an art because the various branches of economics like consumption, distribution, money banking provide us with rules which can be used to solve the economic problems of society. Economics is an art because it uses the laws of economics (science) to solve everyday economic problems.

Thus, economics is both a science and an art.

Scope of Economics :

Economics has two major branches. These are Micro Economic and Marco Economics.

Micro Economics : Micro economics is the study of the study of the economic activity of the individual, households firms and industries. Micro economics examines how the individual, household , firm or industry earn and spend their income.

Macro Economics : Macro economics is the study of the economy as a whole. It seeks to explain the economic functioning of a state, country or the world. It addresses questions pertaining to employment and economic output of the country.

Thus the scope of economics covers the entire gamut of activities in the world.

Long Answers

3.Critically examine the ‘scarcity’ definition of economics.
Lionel Robbins is credited with the ‘scarcity’ definition of economics. Robbin’s definition is called the scarcity definition of economics because he said economics studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends (requirements of humans) and scarce means (resources) which have alternate uses.
The key point of this definition are :
a)Human wants are unlimited. Not only are the wants unlimited but they keep increasing over time. If one want is satisfied another want comes up. Because of this multiplicity of wants it is not possible to satisfy all wants. But since some needs are more intense than other, humans can satisfy the more intense wants first.
b)Scarce Means : The means which are needed to satisfy wants are limited. There is limited supply of money, land and labour which are required to satisfy wants. Since means are limited, these limited means can only satisfy some some wants leaving other less important wants unsatisfied.
c)Alternate uses of means: Not only are the means (resources) scarce but they can be put to alternate uses. For example land can be used to grow vegetables or wheat. Since means are scarce, they can be used to satisfy only some wants and not others.
d)Choice : Since wants are unlimited and means are limited human beings have to make a choice between which need to satisfy and which to leave unfulfilled.
e)Economics as a science : Robbins called economics as a science. That is it contains systematic knowledge which can solve the economic problems arising out of unlimited wants and scarce means.

Merits of the scarcity definition of Economics:

a)Logical:It is logical that wants are unlimited and resources needed to
satisfy these are limited. Robbins said that economic problems arise due to the imbalance between wants and resources.
b)Universal : The scarcity definition is economics is universal and
applies to the rich and poor and is applicable everywhere.
c)Human Science: The scarcity definition makes economics a human
science and not just a social science ( social science applies to a group of people living in a community). The scarcity definition applies to all individuals whether living together or in isolation.
d)Wider view of economic activity : The scarcity definition describes
economics as a wider activity involving both goods (products) and services ( like banking).
e)Positive Science : The scarcity definition of economics make it
positive science since it does not decide tell the individual on what
action to be taken but leaves decision making to them.

Criticism of scarcity definition Economics:

a)Narrow view of economics: The scarcity definition of economics has been criticized because it does not tell the individual on what choice the individual must make. It leaves decision making to the individual (positive science). Some economists feel that economics must be a normative science and it must tell individuals on the best course of action.
b)Restricted scope : An objection against the scarcity definition of economics is that it is restricted to studying the theory of resource allocation ( applying scarce resources to meet unlimited wants). It does not take into account other important economic problems like unemployment, economic growth and development.
c)Static definition : According to critics, Robbins definition of economics makes it static. That is, it considers only the currently available resources and their efficiency. In the real world, however, the availability of resources and their efficiency increases leading to greater availability of means.
d)Economics as only a science: This definition treats economics only as a science. The science of using available resources to satisfy want. However, economics is not only a since but also an art of solving economic problems.
e)Scarcity not the only economic issue : Economists point out that economic issues arise not only from scarcity (as assumed by the scarcity theory) but also from abundance. The scarcity definition does not address this.

4. What is the growth oriented definition of economics? Explain the main virtues of this definition?

Prof. Paul Samuelson gave a “growth oriented” definition of economics. This definition was required in order to overcome the shortcomings of the “scarcity definition” of economics. The scarcity definition of economics does not address issues like economic growth.
The ‘growth oriented definition of economics is : “ Economics is the study of how people and society chose, with or without the use of money, to employ scarce productive resources, which have alternative uses, to produce various commodities over time and distribute them for consumption now or in the future among various people or groups in society.

The main virtues (positive factors) of this definition are :

a)Emphasis on economic problems : Like the scarcity definition, this definition of economics too emphasizes economic problems which arise due to scarce resources and unlimited wants.
b)Long term perspective : The scarcity definition takes into account only current wants and current resources. However, the growth definition take a long term view of economics since wants expand over time and the amount of resources available also changes over a period of time. A long term perspective of this definition is the main difference between this definition and the scarcity definition.
c) Dynamic Approach : By taking growth as an integral part of economics, this definition has made economics a dynamic and ever changing subject.
d)Universal : The growth definition of economics emphasizes economic problems as a universal problem and applies to barter transactions and transactions using money.
e)Comprehensive : The growth definition of economics makes it comprehensive as it address more issues than the scarcity definition. It also future oriented as it recognizes that wants and means changes over a period of time.
f)Broader Perspective : The growth definition of has broadened the subject matter of economics by including consumption, production, exchange, distribution and economic growth.

5.Which definition of economics is the best? Give reason in support of
your answer.
The “Growth Oriented” definition of economics is the best. This is the best because of the following reasons:
a)It encompasses the wealth definition of Adam Smith while at the same time it does not emphasize on materialism or take a narrow view of wealth.
b)It covers the welfare definition of Alfred Marshall but at same time does not regard economics as a social science. It is not restricted like the welfare definition of economic which treats economics as a subject only as social welfare. The growth oriented definition of economics covers all economic subjects whether they are concerned with the welfare of the people or not.
c)The “growth oriented” definition of economics covers all aspects of the “scarcity definition” of economics yet at the same time improves it by saying that that wants increase over a period of time and resources and their efficiency also changes over a period of time.

Thus, the “growth oriented” definition of economics is the best at it not only addresses the weaknesses of the other definition of economics but also recognizes that economics is a broader subject which includes consumption, production exchange , distribution and economic growth.

6.Differentiate between micro economics and macro-economics.

Micro Economics : Micro economics is the study of the study of the economic activity of the individual, households firms and industries. Micro economics examines how the individual, household , firm or industry earn and spend their income. Micro economic is concerned with how the pricing for products is fixed and how the output is shared between those who cooperate to produce the output.

Macro Economics : Macro economics is the study of the economy as a whole. It seeks to explain the economic functioning of a state, country or the world. It addresses questions pertaining to employment and economic output of the country. Macro economics is concerned with the explanation for the total output of goods in the country, employment of resources for the production of goods. It also deals with the fluctuation of output and employment levels in the country. It seeks to explain why the economy grows fast at time and slower at other times. Macro economics is the theory of national income, employment, total consumptions,savings, investment, general price level and economic growth.

7.Economics is both a science and an art. Discuss.

Economics as a science: Economics is considered to be as social science. A social science is a science which studies human activities. A subject is called a science if:
a)There is a systematic body of knowledge which traces the relationship between cause and effect.
b)There is observation of facts, systematic collection, classification and analysis of facts.
c)There is a making of generalization on the basis of relevant facts and formulating laws and theories.
d)These theories are subjected to real world observations.

Subjects like Chemistry and Physics are called science because it meets all the above characteristics. Economics can also be called a science since it meets these features of a science. Like in other sciences, economic theories are deduced by logical reasoning. For example, like in Newton’s Law of Gravitation in Physics, in economics, the Law of Demand states that, other things remaining the same, there will be an increase in demand if there is a reduction in the price.

Like in other sciences, in economics too there is observation of facts and an analysis of the same. Like other sciences in economics too theories are subjected to real world observations. The truth of economic theories can be challenged when these are subjected to real world observations. Since the methods of economics are scientific it is called a science. Economics is a Positive Science and a Normative Science. This is because it is concerned not only with the cause and effect relationship but also with the cause and desired effect relationship.

However, like in other sciences, laboratory experiments are not possible. Also the laws of economics are not universally applicable like other sciences. Therefore while economics is a science, it is not an exact science.

Economic as an Art : Economics is also an art. It is an art. It is an art because it is not only theoretical but also practical. Science is about knowledge. Art is the application of knowledge.
Applying this definition of art we can say economics is an art because the various branches of economics like consumption, distribution, money banking provide us with rules which can be used to solve the economic problems of society. Economics is an art because it uses the laws of economics (science) to solve everyday economic problems.

Thus, economics is both a science and an art.

8.Economics is both a positive and a normative science. Discuss.
A Positive Science is a science which is concerned with “what is” and not “what ought to be”. One school of thought is that economics is a science which is concerned with only the cause and effect relationship. That is economics must only be concerned with facts about the economy. This school of thought says that economics must frame theories to make predictions about the future course of economic events. It must answer questions like the causes of unemployment, reasons for inflation etc.

The other school of thought says that not only must economics answer questions of what is but also the question of “what ought to be”. A normative science answers the “what ought to be” questions. According to this school of thought, economics must prescribe a course of action to achieve certain goals. It says that economics must prescribe methods to correct undesirable economic happenings.

Now there is consensus that economics is not only a positive science but also a normative science. It uses theory to predict what will happen and then suggests action to get the desired outcome.

Waste :Segregated, Aggregated.Problem Aggravated?

This Bangalore Mahanagar Palike garbage collection truck has used plastic bottles neatly packed in three bags hanging behind(click on image to enlarge).



The blue bag on the left has Aquafina bottles. The blue bag on the right has Kinley bottles(click on image to enlarge).


Either the waste segregation system is fantastic (plastic waste packed separately from non-plastic waste and further the plastic waste packed by brand) or is a well planned system to generate spuriously packaged Aquafina and Kinley water bottles(click on image to enlarge).

The next time you buy one of these brands you could just be buying a recycled bottle.The least one can do to get over this problem is to crush water bottles after consuming the water.

Julius Caesar Act V, Scene V

Brutus and The Ghost of Julius Caesar
(Julius Caesar Act V,Scene V from the Julius Caesar workbook by Xavier Pinto published by Morning Star.Suitable for students of class X of ICSE schools)

I(i) Who is Voluminius? Why does Brutus show intimacy to him. What favor does Brutus expect from him?
Voluminius is an associate of Brutus and also his friend from his school days. Brutus shows intimacy toward him as he needs the assistance of Voluminius to kill himself.

I(ii) The ghost of Caesar appeared to Brutus twice. What did the ghost tell Brutus in Sardis? What does it indicate here in Philippi?
The Ghost told Brutus in Sardis that it would meet Brutus again in Philippi. In Philippi the ghost indicated to Brutus that his end was near. The ghost of Julius Caesar ensured that Brutus killed himself with the name of Julius Caesar on his lips. Even when dying Brutus says that the was killing himself more willingly than he killed Julius Caesar.

I(iii) Name two of Brutus’s friends who have already refused to kill him.What does Voluminius say for not agreeing to carry out Brutus’ wish?
The two of Brutus’s friends who refused to kill Brutus are Voluminius, Clitus and Dardanius. Voluninius refuses to kill Brutus because he says that it is not the right thing for a friend to do.

I(iv) Give the meaning of “ Thou seest the world, Voluminius, how it goes,our enemies have beat us to the pit.
When Brutus says this he means that they have been defeated by their enemies. He tells Voluminous that when you are beaten by your enemies it is better to kill yourself than to be killed by your enemies. He says this in order to prepare Voluminous to help Brutus kill himself before he is captured.

I(v) Briefly state the misfortunes enumerated by Brutus to Volumnious
Brutus told Volumnious that he had seen the ghost of Caesar the previous evening. To Brutus this was a clear indication that his end was near. He also tell Volumnious that that his enemies were pushing him to his grave and it was better to kill oneself that be killed by your enemies.

II(i) Where and when is Brutus speaking?
Brutus is in one part of the battlefield at Philippi when he says this. He speak this when he has madeup his mind to end his life.He says all this as his final parting words for his friends before he kills himself.

II(ii) What recent events have prompted Brutus to say “ I found no man but he was true to me”.
During the period of conflict with Mark Anthony and Octavius Caesar Brutus realized that all his close associates were loyal to him inspite of facing death. Titinius gladly went over to the enemy camp to check who the soldiers were who were burning the tents. He did this in the face of great danger to himself. Young Cato faced certain death by going into battle. Lucilius impersonated himself as Brutus go buy some time for Brutus to escape. Not even one member of his forces betrayed him in any way. This prompted him to say that “I found no man but he was true to me”.

II(iii) Who finally serves Brutus before Octavius and Mark Anthony arrive on the scene.
Before Octavius and Mark Anthony arrive on the scene, Brutus is served by Strato. Strato helps Brutus to kill himself.

II(iv) Do the speeches of Anthony and Octavius which end the play prove Brutus’ words to be true as quoted in the last three lines of the above passage.
The speeches of Anthony and Octavius have words of praise for Brutus. They acknowledged that Brutus killed Caesar only for the betterment of the people of Rome. In their speech they convey their intention of giving Brutus honour and respect in his funeral ceremonies. This proves Brutus’ last words to be true that even in death he would have more glory than Octavius and Mark Anthony would have after victory.

III(i) When does Anthony speak these words? Who was the noblest Roman of them all? Which people are included in the word “all”.
Anthony speaks these words immediately after coming to know that Brutus had committed suicide. Brutus was the noblest Roman of them all. The word “all” includes Mark Anthony and Octavius Caesar.

III(ii) Give the meaning of:
*He only, in the general honest thought,
And common good to all, made one of them.
Anthony say this. He says this to convey that Brutus killed Julius Caesar only because he truly believed that Julius Caesar was not good for the people or Rome. Only with common good in mind did Brutus take the extreme step of conspiring to kill Julius Caesar.

III(iii) By referring to the Elizabethan way of thinking, state in what way was the noblest Roman a perfect human being.
The noblest Roman was a perfect human being because he preferred to kill himself than be captured. Brutus was also a perfect human being because he took on a powerful adversaries like Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony and others in the interests of the people of Rome.

III(iv) What does Octavius order with regard to the funeral of the noblest Roman? Does he deserve such a burial? Give a reason to justify your answer.
Octavius orders a funeral for Brutus which would give him a burial with respect and honour. Octavius also ordered a burial with full military honours. Brutus deserves such a burial because he took on the might of Julius Caesar and his allies in order for the common good of the people of Rome. Brutus had the interest of the people of Rome uppermost in his mind – rather than his own self interest because of which he had to undergo a lot of discomfort. Due to this, he deserves a honourable burial.

III(v) Briefly state how the play propagates the idea that disloyalty and conspiracy do not succeed.
The play propagates the idea that disloyalty and conspiracy do no succeed. Brutus and his fellow conspirators killed Julius Caesar in order to save the people of Rome from tyranny. However, inspite of their good intentions their conspiracy does not work and that the conspiracy is defeated. This propagates the idea the disloyalty and conspiracy does not always succeed.

Julius Caesar,Act V, Scene IV

CATO

(Julius Caesar Act V,Scene IV from the Julius Caesar workbook by Xavier Pinto published by Morning Star. Suitable for students of class X of ICSE schools)

I(i) Who is young Cato? What reference was made in the play earlier about his father?
Young Cato is the brother-in-law of Brutus. The reference that was made earlier about his father was that his father has committed suicide. Brutus was against committing suicide to escape the difficulties of life.

I(ii)In what respect is the death of young Cato similar to that of Titinius.
The death of young Cato was similar to that of Titinius because Titinius went to the other side of the hill on the instructions of Cassius to see if the soldiers there belonged to them or the enemy. Titinius knew of the great risk he was facing when he acted on the instructions of Cassius. Luckily for Titinius, the soldiers he found there were not enemy soldiers. However, Titinius later killed himself on knowing that Cassius had died under the wrong impression that Titinius’s mission had failed. Similarly, young Cato too went into battle on the instructions of Brutus knowing that death was almost certain.

I(iii) Why should the enemy soldiers not wish to kill Lucilius? Why would Lucilius want to be killed? How does Lucilius escape death?
The enemy soldiers, on the instructions of Anthony, do not kill Lucilius. They do not kill Lucilius because Anthony realizes that Lucilius was impersonating as Brutus so that the enemy may kill him mistaking him for Brutus thus giving Brutus a chance to escape. Anthony wanted such a person to be his friend and therefore allowed Lucilius to escape death. Lucilius want to be killed because he is pretending to be Brutus. He knows that if enemy soldiers kill him thinking him to be Brutus then Brutus will give him a chance to escape. Lucilius escapes death because Anthony wants such a loyal person to be his friend.

I(iv) What is meant by “Only I yield to die”?
This means that “ I am surrendering only for you to kill me”. Lucilius is impersonating as Brutus. He wants enemy soldiers to kill him so that they will think that they have killed Brutus thus giving Brutus a chance to escape.

I(v) Who discovers that Lucilius was pretending to be Brutus? What does that person think of Lucilius?
Mark Anthony discovers that Lucilius was pretending to be Brutus. Mark Anthony thinks of Lucilius as a person very loyal to Brutus. He want such a loyal person to be his friend and not his enemy. He therefore spares the life of Lucilius.

II(i) In what sense was Brutus safe enough? How are the second and third lines of the extract prophetic, ie indicative of what is going to take place?
Brutus is safe to the extent that it is unlikely that he could be captured by the enemy. If the enemy had got close to Brutus, Brutus would have killed himself rather than be captured by the enemy. The second and third lines of the extract are prophetic because Brutus killed himself before the enemy could reach him.

II(ii) Who has just been killed when Lucilius is captured? Who has captured Lucilius? What have they done with him?
Young Cato has just been killed when Lucilius is captured. Lucilius is captured by the troops of Anthony. After capturing Lucilius, they mistook him to be Brutus. However, Mark Anthony recognizes Lucilius. On recognizing Lucilius, he pardons Lucilius.

II(iii) “The gods defend him from so great a shame!” What was considered shameful according to the Roman custom.
Being captured, chain and being paraded through the street of Rome was considered shameful according to the Roman custom.

II(iv) What is happening on the battlefield? Who is emerging victorius?
On the battle field young Cato is killed. Lucilius is captured. Brutus is exhausted in the battle and know that defeat is staring him in the face. Mark Anthony and Octavious are emerging victorious in the battle.

II(v) There seems to be two objectives in Lucilius’s impersonating Brutus. What do you think are these objectives.
The two objectives in Lucilius impersonating Brutus are :
- By impersonating as Brutus, Lucilius was trying to buy some time for Brutus to escape. If the army of Mark Anthony thought that Brutus was killed, Brutus would get a change to escape.
- The other objective in impersonating Brutus was to show to Mark Anthony how loyal he was to Brutus, even in defeat.

Julius Caesar Act V, Scene III

(Julius Caesar Act V,Scene III from the Julius Caesar workbook by Xavier Pinto published by Morning Star.Suitable for students of class X of ICSE schools.If you have a query or comment,please post it below)

I(i) Where does this scene take place? Who was the coward? Why did Cassius slay the coward.
This scene takes place in the battlefield of Phillipi. The coward was the bearer of the flag for Cassius’s army. This flag bearer ran tried to run away from the battlefield. Cassius slayed the coward because he did not want anyone from his army to run away from the battlefield.

I(ii) What is meant by “ myself have to mine own turn’d enemy?
Cassius says this. Cassius means that he had to kill the flag bearer who tried to run away from the battle-field. He says that he became the enemy of this own people by killing one of them.

I(iii). What did Titinius say about the error committed by Brutus? What were the immediate consequences of the error.
Titinius says that the error committed by Brutus was that he ordered that attack too early. As a result, even though Brutus was able to defeat Octavius, Brutus was not able to help Cassius who was losing to Anthony. This is because after defeating Octavius the army of Brutus became unruly and started looting and plundering instead of helping Cassius.

I(iv) On what errand does Cassius now send Titinius? What does Cassius tell Pindarus to do for him.
Cassius asks Titinius to go and check if the soldiers on the other side of the hill belonged to their army or to the enemy. He asks Pindarus to climb up the hill and find out if Titinius was able to go to the other side of the to find out if the soldiers on the other side belonged to their army or the army of the enemy.

I(v) Pindarus, Cassius’s slave enters. What does he say? How does his information seem to confirm Cassius’s fears?
Pindarus, Cassius’s slave says that Titinus was completely surrounded by horsemen and is captured by the soldiers of the enemy. This information that Titinius was captured by the enemy soldiers confirms Cassius’s fears that Brutus had lost the battle with Octavius – which was his fear.

I(vi) What does Cassius think aloud while Pindarus is away? Why is the day significant to Cassius in more ways than one.
When Pindarus is away Cassius thinks that he would end his life the day he began it. The day is significant to Cassius because it happened to be his birthday.

II(i)
Who are Titinius and Pindarus? Where are they at the moment?
Titinius is a friend of Brutus and Cassius and a soldier in their army. Pindarus is a servant of Cassius. At this moment, Titinius has gone to the other side of the hill to check whether the soldiers belonged to the enemy or their army. Pindarus is on the hill tracking the progress of Titinius.

II(ii) Explain the meaning “ even with a thought”. Why has Titinius to go?
“Even with a thought” means that Titinius would be back very quickly, as quickly as a thought. Titinius has to go because Cassius has asked him to go to the other side of the hill to see if the soldiers there were from their army or from the army of the enemy.

II(iii) What report did Pindarus now give about Titinius? How did Cassius interpret this report?
The report that Pindarus gave was that he said some horsemen were riding fast toward Pindarus. He said that the horsemen had reached Pindarus and had made Pindarus get down from his horse and Pindarus was captured by the horsemen. Cassius wrongly interpreted this to mean that the soldiers on the other side of the hill were the soldiers of Octavius. He interpreted this as the defeat of Brutus in the battle with Ocatvius. This incorrect interpretation changed the entire course of events.

II(iv) What action did Cassius take? How did the outcome of this action affect Pindarus? How did (a) Titinius and (b) Brutus react to what Cassius did?
Cassius took the extreme step of telling Pindarus, his slave to kill him with the same sword with which Cassius killed Caesar. On the basis of this instructions, Pindarus killed Cassius. Titinius was overcome with grief when he came to know that Cassius was dead. For him the death of Cassius was like the sun having set for Rome. He was very sad because he realized that Cassius has killed himself thinking that Titinius’s mission was unsuccessful. Brutus was very grieved when he came to know of Cassius death. He said that Julius Caesar in his death was even more powerful when he was alive. Julius Caesar had managed to kill his good friends Cassius and Titinius. He said that Cassius was the last man worthy to be called a Roman.

II(v) Refer to, or quote, what Cassius said to Brutus earlier in the play to prove that this tragedy could have been avoided. What had Brutus replied to him then? Refer to another occasion when a somewhat similar mistake had been made by Brutus. What is your opinion of Brutus and Cassius in this connection.
Earlier in the play Cassius had told Brutus that because Brutus had not listened to Cassius not to allow Mark Anthony to address the citizens of Rome they were now in trouble. According to Cassius if Brutus had listed to him, Mark Anthony would not have been allowed address the citizens of Rome and the citizens of Rome would not have revolted against Brutus and the other conspirators. If this had happened, their situation would not be as bad as it was now. When Cassius had objected to Anthony addressing the citizens of Rome, Brutus had told him that allowing Anthony to speak would only enhance their reputation. He only cautioned Anthony not to blame Brutus and the others for Ceasars death. Other than that he could say anything else. There are other occasions where a similar mistake had been by Brutus. One of these occasions was when Cassius advised Brutus to wait for the armies of Octavius and Anthony to reach Sardis rather than go to Philipi to attack them. Brutus did not listen to him and ordered that their armies go to Phillipi. This was also a mistake. Had he listened to Cassius, the outcome of the battle may have been different.
My opinion of Brutus and Cassius in his connection is that Cassius has a lot of wisdom. He is however, not always able to impress on Brutus to take his opinion very seriously. Brutus is also very wise, but he is not good at taking sound advice even from close associates.

III(i) What had Pindarus been looking at? What did he report on what he thought he saw?
Pindarus had been looking at Titinius riding toward the other side of the hill to find out if the soldiers there belonged to them or to the enemy. He saw that Titinius was being followed by other horsemen and then being surrounded by them.He then saw Titinius dismounting before those horsemen. He therefore, reported to Casssius that Titinius was captured by the enemy.

III(ii)What is meant by,” I swore thee”? What had Pindarus promised to do? What is he asked to do now?
Cassius tell Pindarus “ I swore thee”. This means the in exchange for Cassius sparing the life of Pindarus, when he has captured Pindarus in an earlier battle, Cassius had asked Pindarus to do for Cassius whatever Cassius wanted him to do. Pindarus had promised Cassius that he would do whatever he was asked to do for him
Pindarus is now asked to kill Cassius with the same sword that Cassius used to kill Julius Caesar.

III(iii)Narrate what has happened a few minutes earlier which makes Cassius desperate. Was Cassius noble in taking the final decision about himself? Give a reason to justify your answer.
A few minutes earlier Pindarus had informed Cassius that Titinius was taken prisioner by the forces of Ocatvius. Cassius was not noble about taking the final decision about asking Pindarus to kill him. This is because Cassius decided to kill himself even without knowing what was the fate of Brutus in his battle with Octavius. Cassius was in no immediate danger of being killed by the enemy. However, in order to escape the pain to agony a possible defeat, Cassius kills himself leaving others to their own fate.


III(iv)What makes it difficult for Pindarus to keep his oath now?
It make it difficult for Pindarus to keep his oath because he had been a faithful servant of Cassius. Cassius orders Pindarus to kill him. For a faithful servant to kill his master is a difficult task.

III(v)What is the evil influence which drives Cassius towards self-destruction? Should one believe in such influence? Why?
The evil influence that drives Cassius toward self-destruction is his understanding that the presence of crows, ravens and kites hovering above his army indicates defeat for his army. One should not believe in such influences and omens as there is scientific basis for such omens.

IV(i)Where does this scene take place? Who are Titinius and Messala? Why have they come to the scene?
This scene takes place on the hill near the battlefield of Phillipi. Titinius is a friend of Brutus and Cassius and also a soldier in their army. Messala is a devoted friend of Cassius. They have come to the scene to inform Cassius that that the army of Brutus has defeated Octavius.

IV(ii)Where has Pindarus gone? What has made him go away?
Pindarus was so upset that he had to kill Cassius, on the request of Cassius, that he leaves the place to go so far away that no one could ever find him. His grief about having to kill Cassius makes him go away.


IV(iii)What report is Messala going to give to Brutus? Why would the report be like thrusting something into Brutus’ ear?
The report that Messala is going to give Brutus is that Cassius is dead. This report would be like thrusting something into Brutus’s ears as Brutus would not want and be not able to hear such a sorrowful news.

IV(iv) Titinius recollects that Brutus has sent a wreath of victory to be given to Cassius. What victory is referred to?
The victory that is referred to is the victory of Brutus over the army of Octavius.

IV(v) State briefly how Titinius pays his respects to Cassius, his dead friend.
Titinius pays his respect to his dead friend Cassius by placing the wreath, which Brutus had given him, on Cassius’s head.

V(i) Where is Titinius at this moment? Whom is he talking to?Why?
Titinius is at the battlefield of Phillipi. He is talking to the dead Cassius. He is talking to the dead Cassius out of grief. He has realized that Cassius was dead because he had misinterpreted that Titinius was captured by enemy soldiers whereas the had actually been welcomed by the victorious soldiers of Brutus’s army. He then places the wreath, that Brutus gave him for Cassius, on Cassius’s head.

V (ii) Explain the meaning of “misconstrued”. What are the things that had been misconstrued? For what reason.
Misconstrued means misunderstood. That the army of Brutus had lost to the army of Octavius had been misconstrued by Cassius on the basis of feedback given by Pindarus. This was misconstrued as Pindarus wrongly interpreted Titinius alighting from this horse and surrounded by other horsemen as his being surrounded by enemy soldier. Actually, Titinius was surrounded by friendly soldiers of the victorious soldiers of Brutus’s army who had surrounded Titinius to convey him the good news.

V(iii) What was the “garland” a sign of? Why did Brutus send it?
The garland was a sign of victory of Brutus over Octavius. Brutus sent it to Cassius to convey to him his victory over Octavius.

V(iv) Explain the meaning of “regarded”. How did Titinius now show his regard? What did Brutus say about Titinius and Cassius when he arrived.
“Regarded” means respected. Titinius now showed this regard to Cassius by placing the garland which Brutus had given him on Cassius. When Brutus arrived he grieved the death of Titinius and Cassius. Even though Brutus had no time for the funereal ceremonies of Titinius and Cassius, he said that there were no other two people like Titinius and Cassius who were worthy of being called Romans.

V(v) This scene shows the beginning o the end for the conspirators. What reasons does Brutus give for what he saw? Explain how this reason is proved to be true in his own case later.
The reason Brutus gave for what he saw, that is the death of Titinius and Cassius was the spirit of Caesar was still strong and was causing their swords to go into their own bodies. This is proved in the case of Brutus also, because Brutus too uses his own weapon to kill himself.

VI(i) Where is Brutus? About whom is he speaking?
Brutus is a the scene of the battlefield where Cassius and Titinus have killed themselves. He is speaking about Cassius and Titinus who had killed themselves. He says that there are no other Romans as noble as these two.

VI(ii) What does he mean “ the last of all the Romans”?
By saying that Cassius and Titinius were “the last of all the Romans” Brutus means that there was no one else in all of Rome who were as honourable as these two.

VI(iii) Give a brief but clear account of the events which immediately precede this speech and give rise to it.
The immediately preceding events are as under :
Cassius has suffered defeat at the hand of Anthony. He takes a brief retreat to a nearby hill. There he sees that on the other side of the hill some tents have been put on fire and he sees some soldiers. He asks Titinius to quickly go across to see if these soldier belonged to Brutus or to the enemy. He also asks Pindarus go to the highest point on the hill and report the progress of Titinius. Pindarus incorrectly reports that Titinius had been captured by the enemy. Grief stricken Cassius asks his slave Pindarus to kill him. When Titinius comes back with the good news that Brutus had defeated Octavius, he sees that Cassius is dead. So grieved is he that the kills himself. When Brutus returns from the battle field, he sees that two of his closest men Cassius and Titinius are dead.\

Vi(iv) This event combined with another factor caused the death of Brutus a little later. Explain briefly.
The deaths of Cassius and Titinius demoralized Brutus. He lost his will to fight back strongly and avenge the defeat of Cassius. During the second round of battle when Cato and Lucilius went into battle, Brutus stayed back. He was do dejected that he asked Strato to kill him – which Strato did.

Vi(v) What instructions does Brutus now give to his friends?
The instructions that Brutus gave his friends was to put up a brave fight in the second round and to hold up their heads bravely.

Julius Caesar Act V,Scene II

Ruins at Phillipi
(Julius Caesar Act V,Scene II from the Julius Caesar Workbook by Xavier Pinto published by Morning Star.Suitable for students of ICSE schools of class X.If you have a query please post a comment below)

I(i)Where does this scene take place? What is meant by these bills? What is referred to as “the legions on the other side”?
This scene takes place on the battle-field of Philippi. Bills refers to the message that Messala has to deliver to Cassius asking Cassius to attack Octavius. The legions on the other side is the army of Octavius and Anthony.

I(ii) What instructions does Brutus give? To whom are these instructions given.
Brutus gives instructions that Cassius must immediately attack the troops of Octavius. These instructions are given to Cassius via Messala.

I(iii) Brutus hopes to have an advantage at this juncture. What indications has he perceived in this regards.
The indication that Brutus has got, which he feels may give him an advantage, is that the troops of Octavius are not enthusiastic at this point and therefore may not fight well.

I(iv) Give the meaning of “sudden push gives them overthrow”
When Brutus says this he means that a sudden attack on the forces of Octavius may defeat them.

I(v)What warning did Octavius give Brutus the previous night? How was the warning taken.
The warning Ocatavius gave the previous night was that he would fight against the Brutus and the other conspirators till either the killed them or got killed. He said that he would not rest till the death of Julius Ceasar was avenged. This warning was taken very lightly by both Brutus and Cassius. They responded by saying that Octavius was only a schoolboy who was not worthy of dying at the hands of Brutus.

I(vi) What change do you notice in the character of Brutus in this scene.?
The change that one can notice in the character of Brutus in this scene is that the seems to be more positive. He notices that the army of the enemy is less than enthusiastic and therefore sees some chance of a victory. He therefore announces his intention of immediately attacking the army of the enemy.

Julius Caesar Act V Scene I

Ruins of Sardis
(Julius Caesar Act V,Scene I taken from the Julius Caesar Workbook for ICSE school students in India. Questions from the Workbook by Xavier Pinto published by Morning Star. If you have a query or need to clarify please post a comment below.)

1(i).Who are they referred to in line one. What warning would they give? From where would they come to Philippi?
“They” referred to in line one is a reference to Brutus and Cassius and their armies. The warning that they would give means that the armies of Brutus and Cassius want to declare their intention to attacking Octavius and Anthony’s armies in Philippi rather than wait for the armies of Octavius and Anthony to reach Sardis. They would come to Philippi from Sardis.

I(ii) Give the meaning of:
(a)Answering before we do demand of them.
Octavius says that the armies of Brutus and Cassius want to launch the attack even before they are challenged by the armies of Octavius and Anthony.
(b)I am in their bosoms
Anthony say this. The means that he know how the minds of Brutus and Cassius are thinking of when they plan to attack the armies of Anthony and Octavius without waiting for them to reach Sardis.

I(iii) Whose military strategy has dictated that the battle should take place at Philippi? What had Brutus argued regarding this strategy?
Brutus’s military strategy dictated that the battle should take place at Philippi. Brutus’s arguments for meeting the enemy at Phillipi, rather than wait from them in Sardis,are as under:
•Brutus said that the people between Sardis and Philippi were now compelled to be friendly to the armies of Brutus and Cassius. However, if the army of Octavius and Anthony reached Sardis the people would turn against Brutus and Cassius.
•If the people of Sardis turned their supported Octavius and Anthony then their army would get stronger and refreshed through the help that they received from the people. Therefore, meeting the army of the enemy in Philippi would deprive them of the help of the local people.
•Brutus also said that their fortunes were now good and therefore they must attack the enemy when the tides are in their favour rather than when the tide turns against them.

I(iv) What opposition did Brutus meet against this strategy?
The arguments that Cassius gave against this strategy to march to Philippi was that the army of the enemy will be tired after their march into Sardis. While the armies of Brutus and Cassius would be fully rested and will therefore be in a better position to take on the enemy.

I(v) What did Octavius hope that the enemy would do? What according to him is the intention of the enemy?
Octavius had hoped that the enemy would stay at Sardis awaiting for the armies of Octavius and Anthony to reach there. According to him the intention of the enemy is to attack them in Phillipi without waiting for them to reach Sardis.

I(vi)What according to Anthony is the planning of the enemy? Why does Anthony feel so confident that he knows what the enemy intnds to show?
According to Anthony the planning of the enemy is to attack them in Phillipi only to show the enemy that they have a courageous and confident army. However, according to Anthony the real situation is that the enemy is weak and the plans to attack them in Phillipi to trick the enemy into believing that they are strong and confident.

I(vii) What message I brought to Octavius and Anthony by the messenger? How do these two leaders react to this message?
The message that is broutht to Octavius and Anthony is that the enemy is approaching with a red flag which signifies battle. The two leaders react to this by deciding among themselves how they must attack the enemy. This also leads to a quarrel between Anthony and Octavious and who must attack on which side.

II(i) Who is the tongue that Cassius speaks of? Give the substance of what the tongue had said which so offended Cassius.
The tongue that Cassius speaks of is the way Anthony insulted Brutus. Anthony said that Brutus and Cassius had flattered and smiled at Caesar and bowed before him like slaves, kissed his feet to deceive Caesar and then attacked from behind to kill Caesar.

II(ii) Give a brief explanation of the earlier episode that Cassius is referring to when he reminds Brutus that that he himself has to thank for the present situation.
The earlier episode that Cassius is referring to is when Brutus allowed Anthony to address the citizens of Rome after the death of Julius Caesar. It was this speech of Anthony that turned the tide against Brutus and the conspirators. Cassius means that if Brutus had not allowed Anthony to speak, they would not have been facing this troublesome situation.

II(iii) Give the comments made by Cassius, in this next speech, when he scornfully describes Octavius.
Cassius says that Octativus was a silly schoolboy not worthy of dying at the hands of Brutus. He also scorned Octavius’s alliance with Anthony who he described as someone who was interested in wearing masks at parties and who loved noisy merrymaking.

II(iv) What does Octavius means by the cause? State in your own words the meaning of the last two lines of the passage – “ or till another… Caesar…sword of the traitors”.
When Octavius say “come to the cause” he asks Cassius to come to the point and not aruge unnecessarily. The meaning of the last two lines “ or till ……” means that Octavius would fight the traitors like Brutus and Cassius either till he killed all traitors or was killed by the traitors.

II(v) Was Octavius successful in this task of vengeance? How does the play end.
Octavius was successful in this task of vengeance. He was successful in killing Brutus, Cassius and some of the other traitors. The play ends with the death of Brutus. It also ends in a reconciliation between the enemies. Octavius offers service to all those who served Brutus.He takes Strato into his household. Anthony praises Brutus as “the noblest Roman of them all”.The play ends with a feeling that Brutus was victorious even in defeat.

III(i) In this extract Cassius narrates something he has seen. What is it? Did he believe in the significance of such things earlier in his life? Why?
In this extract Cassius narrates that on the way from Sardis two eagles followed them feeding from the soldiers hand. However, on reaching Philippi, the eagles vanished and ravens, crows and kites took their place. Cassius says that he did not believe in the significance of these things earlier in this life as he believed in the philosophy of Epicurus and therefore did not believe in omens.

III(ii) Give the meaning of “As we were sickly prey : their shadows seem/A canopy most fatal” What do these line signify.
Cassisus says this. On the way to Sardis a few eagles had perched on this army’s cavalcade. This he interpreted as a good omen. However, upon reaching Sardis the eagles few away and crows, ravens and kites started hovering over his army. His Cassius has described in the lines above. He say that these crows, ravens, kits looked down upon them as if they were the birds prey, about to die. He says that the shadow of the birds cast a shadow of death over the armies of Cassius and Brutus.

III(iii)What did Cassius see on the previous day and on that particular morning? What do these signs signify.
On the previous day Cassius saw some Eagles hovering on the armies of Brutus and Cassius. This Cassius interprets as a good omen. However, on that particular morning the Eagles flew away and Kites, Crows and Ravens started hovering over their armies. This he interpreted as a bad omen indicating their defeat in the battle with Octavius.

III(iv) How can you conclude from what Cassius says, a little later, that he was prepared for a possible defeat.
We can conclude that Cassius was prepared for a possible defeat because he interprets the appearance of crows, ravens and kites as divine symbols of defeat. Even a little later he discusses with Brutus about the possibility of their death in the imminent battle.

III(v)How does Brutus console him?
Brutus consoles him by saying that their destiny has already been fixed by the Gods. He tells Cassius that they must suffer pain bravely without complaining.

IV(i) What has Brutus just said that makes Cassius say the words given in the extract? Which Roman practice is referred to in Cassius’ speech?
Brutus had just said that it is cowardly to commit suicide and that he would not commit suicide. He says that their destiny has already been fixed by the Gods. The Roman practice of parading prisoners thru the streets of Rome is referred to in Cassius’s speech.

IV(ii) State briefly to what extent Brutus bears a great mind.
We can say that Brutus bears a great mind because even when defeat is staring him in the face he does not loose his equanimity (cool) . Even when he is under great stress, he calmly advices Cassius that their destiny is already decided by the Gods. He says it is not correct to commit suicide in order to avoid the war. He says his final goodbye to Cassius saying that if this is their last meeting, they must part in the right spirit.

IV(iii) What began on the ides of March? How will the words of Brutus be prophetic.
The thought of killing Caesar originated with the prophesy of the soothsayer who said that Caesar must be careful about the ides of March. The words of Brutus will be prophetic because the told Cassius that he would never allow himself to be captured and be paraded through the streets of Rome. His words turned out to be prophetic because he killed himself before he could be captured by the enemy.

IV(iv) Do Cassius and Brutus meet again.?
No Cassius and Brutus do not meet again as both Cassius and Brutus give up their lives during the course of the battle.

IV(v) Brutus and Cassius are affected by the latest events. This makes them act in a different way than their normal behaviour. Give one incident to illustrate this.
Brutus had said earlier that it was wrong to commit suicide and that he would not commit suicide if he was captured. However, even before he was captured he committed suicide. Cassius was not a believer of omens as he followed Epicurus. However, so affected was he by the events that he believed that the crows,vultures and kites that hovered over his army was a bad omen.

Other Questions
Q.Who was Pompey? Why is he referred to in this extract?
A.Pompey was the son-in-law of Julius Caesar who was also an enemy of Julius Caesar. Cassius refers to Pompey because he says that like Pompey was forced to fight Julius Caesar he too was being forced into this battle.

Q.What is Cassius compelled to do? Who has compelled him? How? What would be the outcome of the decision which he is compelled to take.
A.Cassius is forced to go into battle even though he is not very willing to do so. His destiny has compelled to take part in the battle in which he may not survive. The outcome of the decision that he is compelled to take could be his death in the battlefield.

Q.Who is Epicurus? What was his view? If Cassius held the viewpoint of Epicurus, what makes him now to change his mind.
A.Epicurus was a Greek Philosopher. His view was that one should not believe in omens and signs as they did not have any significance in life. Cassius believed in the philosophy of Epicurus and did not believe in omens. However, now Cassius was depressed. He felt that defeat was the only possibility now and therefore he viewed the appearances of crows, kites and ravens as bad omen. So depressed was Cassius that he gave up his belief in Epicurean philosophy.

Q.Give the meaning of “ and partly credit things that do presage.
A.This indicates that the turn of events lead Cassius to believe in omens. Normally, Cassius believed in the philosophy of Epicurus which did not pay any credence to omens.

Q.Comment briefly on the uncertainty which Cassius feels about the outcome of the battle that day. How do Brutus and Cassius wish each other farewell at the end of the scene.
A.Before the battle, Cassius is a very worried man. His instinct tell him that defeat is in store for him. He is so uncertain that he interprets the appearance of crows, kites and ravens as an inauspicious omen. He tells Messala that he is being forced into this battle against his wishes. Brutus and Cassius wish each other farewell before the battle. While they wish that they live up to old age, they acknowledge that this may be the last time they are meeting. Brutus tell Cassius that suicide is not the way out of the ensuing suffering that they may face. They must face the suffering bravely. They part just before the battle by saying that if they do not meet again, they would at-least have the satisfaction of knowing that they parted cheerfully.